Rule of Gods: What Mythology Still Teaches Us About Power and Order

Our gods, our rulers since time immemorial. Their adventures, values, and codes have transformed into myths; those myths into traditions; and traditions into collective memory. Thus, managing to remain an integral part of our post-modern consciousness. 

As an avid lover of mythology, reading the Iliad by Homer, my fellow İzmirite, led me to wonder whether human ideas of power, legitimacy, leadership, order, and authority have truly changed over the centuries, and what mythology might still teach us about the world today.

This idea served as the starting point for this interview. 

We explored these themes, which lie at the heart of International Relations, by linking them to current events through the lens of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sema Sandalcı’s expertise in Roman and Greek mythology. Her scholarship also extends to Balkan languages, Greek language, culture, folklore, and literature.

Humanotions: Why does a society feel the need to express itself through myths?

Sema Sandalcı: For today, I would say it is to remember and honor the past. But for past eras, I would say it was to preserve one’s way of life, pass it on to the future, and find the right path. To provide a more detailed perspective, let me elaborate on the subject: 

We see the first traces of mythology around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia among the Sumerians. By 2000 BCE, Assyria, Babylon, the Hatti and Hittites of Anatolia, as well as Iran, Syria, Egypt, and Libya, were also significant in this regard. 

However, by 1500 BCE, Greek mythology, which emerged from migrations through the Aegean-Mediterranean and Thrace, incorporating various narratives that were developed over the following centuries and became increasingly rich and sophisticated by the 7th century BCE, became comprehensive and significant. These stories depicted different people and events. Subsequently, Roman mythology, which reflected Greek influence in many areas, served as a complementary force, clarifying the transition from mythology to history. 

Aegean. Photo by Markos Mant on Unsplash

Ever since the Sumerian civilization, humanity’s primary aim has been to understand the beliefs derived from the nature in which they lived through stories—that is, to conceptualize nature and the masculine and feminine forces within it, according to their functions, portraying them in human form and character but on a scale far more majestic than humans, and to give them voice. In this way, they transformed their lives, beliefs, and customs into stories, passing them down orally from generation to generation. 

This transmission evolved into a system designed to preserve collective memory, one with lasting durability. Underpinning this system was a way of life established alongside the sedentary lifestyle, based on agriculture and animal husbandry—a tradition spanning approximately 10,000 years—characterized by respect for nature and its bounties, and a commitment to remembering significant events and the deeds of ancestors. 

In short, it was a system designed to record step-by-step progress in memory. Indeed, some priest-bards kept significant natural (such as heavy snowfall in winter, floods, earthquakes, etc.) and political events in mind. These individuals maintained the master- apprentice relationship and ensured that events were preserved in memory and passed down from generation to generation. 

Around 2000 BCE, with the development of seafaring led by Egypt and Libya, we see the tradition of respected bards in Western Anatolia contributing to the blending of Aegean-Mediterranean cultures, settlement in new regions, and the spread and development of Greek culture. 

Meanwhile, as wars began to increase alongside religious elements, lyrical narratives emerged and celebrated the heroism of brave warriors, who sacrificed themselves to protect their people, as well as the importance of knowing one’s lineage. These narratives explored origins, ancestral deeds, beliefs, and the spiritual, mental, and physical strength of heroes, along with their connection to the gods. Furthermore, they sought to incorporate significant events in their lives and beliefs, as well as new customs and innovations, into their stories. 

In Sumer, where writing originated, as well as in cultures like the Hittites—who understood the importance of writing and established their own system—and in Greece, which used the Phoenician alphabet in the 1st millennium BCE, and in Rome, which developed the Latin alphabet by the 6th century BCE, the fact that these narratives were put into writing demonstrates the importance placed on them. Indeed, the historical narratives that emerged in our region (Türkiye) from the 6th century BCE onward were also built upon this system. Even the fact that Herodotus of Halicarnassus (5th century BCE), the “Father of History,” recorded these events is no coincidence; it was the result of an accumulation of knowledge in Western Anatolia. 

In mythological narratives, there were shared concepts from Sumer to Greece and Rome. For example, the power and lineage of kings were considered divine. This divinity represented a direct connection to the enduring masculine and feminine forces in nature—such as air, water, the sun, the moon, earth, and storms—which have always existed and are vital for life. 

Accordingly, the right to life of all living beings stems from nature, and since kings of divine lineage are obligated to govern their people in the name of the gods and with divine justice, the unjust killing of a person is considered the gravest crime committed against nature, and the perpetrator must not go unpunished; and for this reason, it was envisaged that the trial of cases warranting the death penalty should be conducted by the king—who possessed a connection to the gods—in the name of upholding divine justice. As  it was believed that when the unacknowledged sins of people and kings remained hidden, nature would punish them with earthquakes, plagues, floods, fires, famine, and starvation—that is, during humanity’s most vulnerable moments. These moments were the result of the king’s lack of foresight and wisdom; in other words, the gods had deemed him worthless and discredited and had withdrawn their support from him.

There were many troubles in the world, but the solution was always to be found in nature. Therefore, a person’s virtue was the measure of their worthiness before the gods—that is, before nature. It was observed that most stories centered on an injustice and its consequences, thereby helping the listener to internalize societal morality. These stories were sometimes told by the elders to children, youths, and adults gathered around a fire. 

In ancient life, people exchanged gifts to ensure they would not forget. By the 8th century BCE, as these stories began to appear in Greek art, myths were transferred to painting and ceramics to help people remember them. Statues representing  their gods and goddesses, as well as the heroes of their stories, began to be created so they would not be forgotten. Initially, Greek art and architecture were influenced by Egyptian and Libyan styles, but these gradually evolved into forms unique to Greece. 

If they forgot their ancestral stories, future generations would be left rootless and without a sense of belonging. Family life also reflects this, because when ancient people realized that perpetuating the lineage in all living beings was a divine act, they began to perform marriage as a sacred ceremony in the manner they honored the gods. They were aiming to preserve family honor in order to become virtuous people and lineages. 

Indeed, a wedding is performed only once, and this wedding, conducted with an oath in the name of the gods, is considered a legal marriage; the children born from this marriage become the legal heirs of the father and the lineage. The source of all these approaches is agricultural culture, as all these metaphors are related to agricultural life. Agriculture has been what educates the human spirit, feeds hungry bellies, and initiates production and civilization. A society without agriculture remains barren, uncivilized, and even without lineage. 

The greatest factor distinguishing us (Türkiye) from other countries is that Anatolia has, for 10,000 years, derived all its strength, cultures, abundance, and wealth from agriculture and has successfully transmitted these to the present day. In this regard, it is a great cradle of civilization; its accumulated heritage cannot be explained by a single culture, yet we observe transmissions from one culture to another. The sacred oaths made by ancient people regarding the land and its bounties, alongside the divine pursuit of agriculture, were of a nature that encompassed the future generations of their lineage. Accordingly, those who betray their land, nature, and people are doomed to the extinction of their lineage, to live in hunger and misery; their lineage will not reproduce, their livestock will not multiply, and their crops will not yield. From this perspective, the historical past of our region (Türkiye) has entrusted us with an important duty. 

Anatolian cultures played a role in the origin and preservation of all the rules we call universal today. Unfortunately, this rich agricultural heritage has become a victim of poor politics and global trade in our time, which has led to hunger and destitution. 

Therefore, today, a society’s ancient myths serve as a space to reveal the root traces of that society and culture, as well as its existence and uniqueness. From this perspective, for example, when Turkish mythology is examined, although it was recorded alongside Islam, the traces of ancient ancestors are intertwined with the stories, providing insight into their lives, customs, and beliefs, Accordingly, it is noteworthy that the Turks lived not under a state system but around a chieftain, with chieftains gathering around a khan, making collective decisions to protect the family and the people, ensure their survival, and ward off dangers. The fact that Turkic tribes chose the horse and the wolf as their guides is also significant in this regard. These animals represent strength, power, and justice—friendly to friends, hostile to enemies. 

Today, nearly every country is striving to uncover and mythologize its own ancestral past. In this regard it is remarkable that West—which suffers from a serious problem of rootlessness—is now pursuing artificial narratives of its own past, striving to achieve cinematic success by portraying history as if it were always that way. They are even attempting to present mythology as fantasy.

Of course, the source for Europe’s doing this is Greek and Roman mythology, and at times, Egyptian influence also comes to the fore. Because these cultures managed to capture flawless narratives in antiquity and successfully transcribe them into writing. 

In our own national (Turkish) cinema, figures like Karaoglan, Tarkan, and Battalgazi hold significant importance in this regard. They had begun this tradition with a sense of seriousness... Today, however, the absence of a narrative that seriously addresses a historical event in our national cinema is deeply frustrating. Somehow, a trend of distorting and misrepresenting history has emerged. 

Yet, regardless of how a nation’s people may evolve over time, there is importance in knowing one’s roots, living a life worthy of one’s ancestors, and understanding and defining one’s own identity through the knowledge of myths. Cinema plays a significant role in this regard, but unfortunately, today it is evident that in addressing and portraying these myths, artificial imagery and visual spectacles have taken precedence over reality... 

Lastly, I would like to note that the ancient Anatolian way of life has been documented in writing for 4,000 years and holds a significant place in the mythological narratives of the ancient Greek and Roman eras. 

Scenes from the Trojan War in Greek vase ceramic art:

Achilles kills the Amazon queen Penthesilea, Athenian amphora, c. 530 BC.

Attic Black-figure Amphora, Type B; depicting a battle scene with quadriga (4-horse chariot)

Two short stories adapted into mythology to understand the order of ancient life: 

Story 1 

Nikaia is a beautiful water nymph, the daughter of the river god Saggarios (Sakarya) and the goddess Cybele. Nikaia rejects love and is devoted solely to hunting. Therefore, when Hymnos, a young Phrygian shepherd, tries to woo her, he receives nothing but insults in return; when the young man persists, Nikaia kills him with an arrow. Enraged by this act of violence, just like all the gods, the god of love, Eros, makes the god of wine, Dionysus, fall in love with Nikaia. Dionysus had seen the nymph naked while she was bathing but Nikaia does not reciprocate the god’s desire either. In fact, she threatens that if he does not leave her alone, her fate will be the same as that of the shepherd Hymnos. Upon this, Dionysus transforms the water of the spring from which Nikaia drinks into wine; once the girl is drunk, he takes her without any difficulty. From this union, a daughter named Telete is born. At first, Nikaia wants to kill herself. But eventually, she reconciles with Dionysus. Thus, they have other children as well. One of them is Satyros. When Dionysus returned from India, he founded the city of Nikaia (Iznik; Is Nikea) in honor of his beloved. 

Story 2 

Pleksippos and Enetos, the two sons of King Khorikos of Arcadia, who had ties to Thrace, had discovered the art of wrestling. On a festival day, they performed a demonstration of this before their father. But their sister Palaistra told their discovery to their lover, the god Mercurius (Hermes). Mercurius immediately developed this art and taught it to people, claiming he was its inventor. The two brothers complained to their father about their sister Palaistra. King Khorikos rebuked his sons for not taking revenge on Hermes. Upon this, one day, when they found Hermes sleeping on Mount Kyllene, the two brothers cut off his hands. Hermes, in turn, complained to Zeus. Zeus then flayed King Khorikos’s skin to make a tunic. Hermes named this new art after his lover Palaistra (to this day, “palaistra” in Greek means a wrestling arena or a place for combat). 

Humanotions: How is power defined in Greek and Roman mythology? Is power merely physical strength, or are lineage, intellect, fear, or divine support also part of it? 

Sema Sandalcı: At times, beauty, lineage, and fear can transform into power. Intelligence is power in and of itself, as is physical strength. It all depends on how these are used. In Greek and Roman mythology, power is associated with beauty, intellectual superiority, divine lineage, or divine support. In mythological narratives, those who misuse their power, beauty, or intellect are punished by evil, and their names are remembered with disdain by future generations as a lesson. Conversely, those who use their power, beauty, and intellect for good are rewarded with glory, so that their names may be remembered with respect by future generations. 

Because people perceive divine powers in nature, within natural beauty. Nature itself instills confidence through its beauty, which is why the Sun and water hold a place in the earliest beliefs. The Sun is the element that warms, reveals, and illuminates everything. Yet it is bound to yield its place to the Moon at night. While the day felt secure, the night was overcome by fears. The Sun was a great power, the eye of the universe. Most importantly, it bestowed health upon living beings, but it was also the source of plagues, sweeping away life. Rain was a blessing, but when it turned to fury and became a flood, it destroyed everything in its path. Everything had to be started anew. The earth was the source of life for living beings, but without rain, it remained barren and yielded no crops. Countless similar examples could be cited

Greek-Roman mythology emphasizes these things, so that people may live properly in the right place. Yet, humans have their weaknesses even if the king symbolizes the sky and the queen symbolizes the earth. Many myths recount how those who misuse their power are punished. 

There is no god of pure evil in ancient mythology, but people’s enduring fears have found their way into these tales, and recurring events are associated with gods and goddesses. What is clearly evident in Greek and Roman culture is that gods and goddesses rewarded good with good and punished evil with evil. 

For millions of years, humanity lived in nature, naked and defenseless, just like animals. Consequently, they were exposed to every kind of danger and fear in nature and the seasons. It is not just habits for survival but also genetic traits that remain within today’s humans. Whatever a culture has accumulated comes to the surface. 

Thus, the people of this region began to overcome, conquer, and find solutions to the fears that have persisted for millions of years by developing an agricultural culture. That is why those who misuse their minds, hands, and strength have not been loved, because they know what evil leads to, creating destruction and disasters.

On the other hand, those who saved people’s lives, who brought them light and vitality, were loved and respected; to ensure they were not forgotten, they were seen as heroes, even deified. 

Agriculture teaches respect for nature and its bounties. Through agriculture, humanity understood that there is an order in nature and developed ways of life in harmony with nature, which they had once feared so much. However, customs such as taking or stealing another’s food dated back much further, and this was the cause of most wars. Yet, whoever won a battle or two would thank their god and prepare for new wars. Unfortunately, these were human weaknesses—passed down from generation to generation alongside good and evil. Though laws sought to restrain them, there was always a trick, an excuse, or an opportunity... The wars of our time are a clear manifestation of this barbarism and brutality. 

Europe and America are actually far behind in this regard. Because they prioritized brute force—a force close to savagery—yet whatever they do, they do it supposedly in the name of humanity... For example, Europe boasts of the Industrial Revolution, and America boasts of technology, striving to keep this in their hands forever, turning it into weapons and deceptive politics, aiming to bind other peoples to themselves through commercial relations. 

Yet this is not civilization, neither a behavior suitable for nature nor for humanity. This is colonialism, barbarism, and its roots can be traced back approximately 250 years. Moreover, to avoid industrial pollution becoming a problem for themselves and their countries, they strive to have other nations handle the dirty, toxic, and waste-producing aspects of their industries— ostensibly to help those nations earn foreign exchange. There is absolutely no justification for this. This topic could be explored further. Ultimately, the essence of civilization lies in living in harmony with nature... 

As I said, those who misuse their power, beauty, and intellect—those who bring about the destruction of others—will not meet a good end.

For example, it was Helen’s beauty and her love for Paris that sparked the Trojan War. Helen was a queen who was married and had a child. While her husband, King Menelaus of Sparta, was away from home, she fled with Paris— a foreigner and a guest in her house—abandoning her child, her palace, and taking her wealth with her. 

Helen, who caused the deaths of hundreds in the Trojan War and was sentenced to be dragged by her hair and killed by her husband, eventually convinces her husband and continues her life. 

One account of how her life ended goes as follows: 

Story 3 

When her husband Menelaus died, his two sons exiled Helen to punish her for her sins. Helen sought refuge in Rhodes with Polykso, an old friend. Although Polykso appeared to welcome her with hospitality, she actually sought revenge against her. This is because her beloved husband had died in the Trojan War, which had erupted because of Helen. While Helen is bathing, she orders her servants to disguise themselves as the vengeful Erinyes (symbolizing Conscience) and terrify her. The servants torment Helen so severely that she eventually hangs herself. 

There were punishments for sins that would never end, but if the task assigned was completed, forgiveness would be granted such as Sisyphus’s boulder that rolls back down the hill every time he pushes it to the top, the Danaids’ futile attempt to fill a bottomless jar with water, and the punishment of Tantalus, who, though dead, endures eternal hunger and thirst. 

Humanotions: Even among the gods in Greek and Roman mythology, there is a hierarchy. In your opinion, how does leadership emerge here? Is power alone sufficient, or is leadership actually a matter of “gaining acceptance”? 

Upon close examination of Greek and Roman mythology, the power of the Sun was initially great, as was that of the Moon—the source of water, darkness, and evil. 

Since ancient times, all settlements have been located near water. However, it took millions of years for humankind to come to understand nature well enough to begin agriculture. From this perspective, Mesopotamia’s significance on Earth is profound. The earliest traces of civilization and its subsequent development are inextricably linked to this region. Here, the foundations of agriculture, belief systems, political, social, religious, and architectural structures were laid. As emphasized in Greek mythology, this led them to understand that there was order within nature—which was previously seen as chaos—and that the forces governing the earth originated from the heavens. Night and day, time, the seasons, snow, winter, rain, and storms all stem from the sky. On Earth, the soil—which gives birth to and nourishes all living things—is a great power. But without rain, crops could not grow; the land lay barren. Water is life, but fire can dry it up; fire was powerful, even capable of causing irreparable damage, yet water could extinguish it. 

Goddess of Victory, Nike. Photo by JUNHYUNG PARK on Unsplash

With the advent of agriculture, spring became the season of nature’s awakening and rebirth, a time when all living things flourished and emerged. This season, marked by the heaviest rainfall, was perceived as the sky fertilizing the earth with rain and was considered the greatest blessing. Since Sumerian times, ancient family life has developed in parallel with this: the father was seen as the productive force, and the mother as the force that gives birth and nourishes; from this perspective, respect for parents—and even for those who are older—began to take root. Respect for one’s birth parent was considered a sacred principle—that is, hierarchy (hieros: sacred; arhi: origin, first, principle, governance). For this reason, killing one’s parents was the gravest of crimes.

Thus, the sky was the greatest producer, and the earth was the power that gave birth to and nourished living beings. They were equal to one another. For this reason, the Sky was regarded as the father, and the Earth as the mother. Since the Sky, which spoke the final word to nature, held the ultimate authority, the father’s word was absolute within the family as well. 

On earth, the king derived his power from the sky god, while the queen represented the earth. For a man to become king or be chosen as king, he had to achieve a great victory for his clan; indeed, this victory made him king, his lineage was respected, and it was believed he had divine support. This system persisted for thousands of years. When the king died, his firstborn child, whether a daughter or a son, would succeed him. 

However, increasing wars and the development of mining in the 4th millennium BCE (the precursor to modern industry) intensified the workload and increased the need for human labor. Consequently, the taking of prisoners in wars led to the emergence of slavery. This is because warring societies fought, feeling their gods by their side; they carried divine images at the forefront and above their heads (which evolved into the symbols we now call banners and flags). Those who lost the war were considered to have lost divine support, and they submitted to the victor and his god. 

Poseidon. Photo by Serge Taeymans on Unsplash

As a result, with the increasing frequency of wars, the concept of a single king began to waver; making the right decision became crucial, as wrong decisions could lead to the tragic downfall of people and cities. Thus, nobles came to the fore alongside the king in making the right decisions—the precursors to today’s senate and parliament. Situations like military failure, epidemics, and famine were attributed to the king’s lack of foresight. It was believed that the king had lost divine support due to his secret actions, and the people paid the price. 

In earlier times, a king who failed would step down out of shame before his people, but over time, some kings clung to their thrones. In such cases, people could openly express their stance. A king served as the supreme commander in war, the high priest in religious ceremonies, and the judge in capital cases, for all these were divine matters—and those who succeeded in them lived in security... 

It is noteworthy that in Rome, institutions emerged in areas concerning daily life, and the state became competent in the name of order. However, during the decline of a culture, the corruption of its fundamental elements also becomes evident. 

Consequently, it was understood that there was a hierarchical order within nature itself, and social life was shaped accordingly. Based on the interaction of natural forces and their respective strengths and weaknesses, concepts of authority and boundaries were also developed in social and political life.

Humanity believed in permanent leadership, but experience revealed that humans can make mistakes. And, worst of all, fall prey to the “disease of power”. Thus, we began to develop all-encompassing laws and permanent rules. 

Humanotions: In these mythologies, cooperation among gods or heroes often appears to be conditional rather than permanent. In your opinion, what do alliances in myths rest upon: shared values, shared interests, or shared enemies?

Sema Sandalcı: An event occurs in antiquity, and a success is achieved. To ensure the person who brought about this success is not forgotten and to exalt them, poets address the event through divine connections. If it involves intellect, it is narrated by linking it to the goddess of wisdom, Athena. If it involves power and strength, it is narrated by linking it to Zeus, because the greatest power resides in him. If the achievement is related to the sea, it is explained through the sea god Poseidon. If it is a victory in war, it is narrated by linking it to the war god Ares, and so on. Because in ancient times, everything related to life that was understood to be enduring was linked to a god or goddess according to its function. In fact, there was only one power these gods and goddesses feared—one they could not resist—and that was Fate, which was perceived as a feminine force. Similarly, they believed in Chance and Fortune. 

In short, when the poet constructs his story, he takes nature and life as his foundation, and he constructs the relevant connections and imaginary dialogues accordingly. 

However, as I tried to point out above, it was possible to lose divine support at any moment due to a single mistake. Of course, there were those who sought to monopolize nature and religion in social life, but deceit was not actually permitted.

The following understanding was reflected in mythology: The Sun and Time had made a pact. No evil would remain hidden or unknown. 

Humanotions: On what basis were the alliances formed in the Trojan War, and what does this tell us about the logic of power and loyalty? If you were there, which side would you have chosen, and what would your decision have been based on?

Sema Sandalcı: During that period, the late 2nd millennium BCE, alliances were based on kinship, friendship, and neighborly ties. For example, while most Thracians were allied with Troy, one Thracian chieftain sent wine to the Akkadians and supported them because they were distant relatives. The fact that the Trojans received support from the Western Black Sea region, and even from the Kızılırmak River, may be related to these deep-rooted connections. Furthermore, in the wars of that era, bravery, bringing honor to one’s city and people, and winning were crucial; moreover, the victor gained far more than the loser. Many men were eager for war, hoping to gain something from it. 

Troy had been a respected city since ancient times—a wealthy city with well-constructed buildings, sustained by agriculture, livestock, and overseas trade. Trojan artifacts assist in dating events in archaeology. All Greek tragedy writers depicted the virtues of Trojan men and women rather than the Achaeans in their plays; however, this approach eventually met with resistance in Athens, and a different perspective was even applied to the same plays. 

For example, according to these plays, the Spartan Helen did not run away with the Trojan Paris; rather, Paris took another woman who resembled her along with him. Or, Agamemnon’s wife Clytemnestra, the Achaean commander-in-chief, had cheated on her husband with his cousin while he was away, and upon his return at the end of the war, she had killed him in collusion with her cousin—but in reality, she had done all this because she had lost her mind after her daughter was sacrificed... 

After all, Homer’s epic, the Iliad, ends with the death and burial of the Trojan Hector. Now that I understand the entire ancient world, I too would have wanted to side with the Trojans. Although the Iliad deals with the bravery, lineage, and heroism of both sides, the sense of decency, justice, and humanity in Troy was more refined and humanistic than that of the Achaeans; it had a deeper understanding of justice. When comparing the manner of Hector’s burial to the way Achilles buried his friend Patroclus, my point will become clearer.

Humanotions: Is the preservation of order more important in myths, or the complete eradication of chaos? In your opinion, how do these stories defend order?

Sema Sandalcı: As we have emphasized, all Greek and Roman mythology consists of examples of good and evil, showing that the good is rewarded with goodness and the evil is punished with evil. Indeed, traces of this are preserved within the traditions of societies like ours that have witnessed such rises. 

The essence lies in succeeding in living in harmony with nature’s order, causing as little harm as possible to nature’s structure and other living beings.

The ancient Aegean-Mediterranean civilizations fundamentally understood and articulated humanity’s place within nature. Accordingly, people realized that there is nothing inherently evil in nature and that every living being in nature possesses both good and evil aspects. 

Therefore, the understanding that there is no such thing as pure evil, that every right and wrong action has its consequences, and that eliminating evil is not within the power of individuals, but rather that people should avoid evil through their willpower, warnings, and stories passed down from generation to generation, explained through narrative tales. The fact that nature was the primary focus in ancient philosophy is already a result of these understandings. 

Now let’s take a look at the course of life: We come from millions of years of hunting and gathering.Initially, we selected suitable stone tools for hunting. Later, we learned to shape these stones according to their function and passed this knowledge on. We recognized that sustenance was the primary element—the first images reflected in caves are an example of this. Even reproduction is tied to this. 

For roughly ten thousand years, the force that has guided our entire existence and launched craftsmanship and industry has been agriculture. However, the tools originally produced for agriculture could easily be transformed into weapons against humans. Consider the connection between the sickle and the knife, dagger, and sword. 

To avoid facing hunting difficulties over time, we began raising animals in pens; since ancient times, an excessive number of animals have been sacrificed—cruelly—and some ancient writers opposed this barbarity. 

But take note: with the advent of Islam, even the sacrificing of animals was subject to proper rules, and the holiday itself was given meaning—the idea that those who are well-off should share with those who are not. However, today we have strayed from our own traditions, and even our livestock industry, operating within the business mindset of Europe and America, is losing its essence and being led into error. Not knowing the source of the food we eat, or the methods of production and feeding, is a major mistake. 

Even during the religious holiday (Feast of Sacrifice), the act of sacrificing animals has practically turned into a massacre. We seem to have forgotten that everything we eat is ingrained in our genes and continues to do so, and that it will affect future generations; but if we have reached a point where we are doing what should be done for the sake of trade in such a deeply wrong way, we need to reflect on the situation. 

In ancient times, the farmer’s primary duty was to cultivate crops as if they had emerged naturally from the earth. For this reason, fields were kept free of all human contamination. Animals were fed in accordance with their natural needs. 

That is why the people of this region had learned to live naturally, developing customs from birth to death. The primary goal was to maintain order in peaceful village and city life, free from lies and deceit. 

It is very easy to criticize the present. Nothing is left that is right. Technocratic politics, the mindset of consuming without producing, the insidious practice of living off others’ backs, secret political alliances, and a sexual mindset driven toward prostitution—these are all being perpetuated with mafia-like precision. Can this be humanity’s place in nature? Yet history and literature have shown how destructive and misguided these tendencies are. Even before history and literature, mythological tales expressed this through lived experiences. 

Humans are those who witness what unfolds in nature; we have come to understand the language of all living things. While nature is the greatest farmer, what does it mean to detonate bombs—poisonous bombs—every day? Yet those who undertake this, and those who profit from it, must be punished from the outset. When nature is the greatest chemist, why do we need artificial mixtures in laboratories today that lead to disastrous outcomes, supposedly to make a lot of money? When nature is the greatest healer, how can a country sacrifice its own health so that foreign companies can make money? 

In ancient Anatolian urban life, there was this rule: no one could block another’s sun, wind, or sea. A 3,000-year-old rule of ours. In the Ottoman era, cutting down trees was forbidden. The buildings could not exceed the height of a tree, the only exception being minarets. A 400-year- old rule of ours. And what state are we in now? 

Ancient people recognized this greed, this mistake; they learned much through trial and error. But we do not see these things; we do not care. 

What we must do today is live a simple life, cultivate our interests, knowledge, and talents, and live in harmony with nature through the life of the countryside, gardens, and fields. If this region is at peace, the world will be at peace. Our country’s historical and cultural values are more numerous and influential than in any other nation. 

Our politicians are even turning a blind eye to the Hittite way of life in Anatolia... This is a shameful situation. 

Story 4 

Knidos (Datça) was a colony of Lacedaemon (Greek: Peloponnese). The land of Knidos is surrounded by water like a peninsula, except for a narrow isthmus. When the Persian commander Harpagos landed in Ionia (Izmir and its surroundings) by land, the people of Knidos sought to turn their homeland into an island by digging through this isthmus; however, when the workers were injured while breaking the stones—especially suffering severe eye injuries—the Greeks sent an envoy to Delphi for an oracle. 

When the oracle Pythia replied, “The isthmus neither needs a fortress nor to be dug through; if the sky god Zeus had wished it, would he not have made this rock an island?” the people of Knidos abandoned the project and surrendered when Harpagos arrived. Additionally, through trade, Halicarnassus (Bodrum) was one of the foreign cities in Egypt that served as a place of worship (Source: Herodotus: I, 174; II, 178)

Humanotions: Fear can lead to harsh measures taken to preserve power. What does it make you think of that Chronos, fearing a prophecy, devoured his own children? 

Sema Sandalcı: Ancient mythology addressed the events unfolding in society by connecting them to the natural forces it regarded as gods and goddesses. From this perspective, throughout history, there have been struggles and conflicts over thrones and positions, and these were narrated through divine connections. 

The management of a father’s property and his position passed directly to the firstborn upon his death. There was respect for the family, parents, and even elders. However, according to this system, the king and his family, his lineage, would always remain kings; nobles would always remain nobles; artisans would remain artisans; and slaves would remain slaves. Yet the world is round, and they knew this. But some did not want to lose their status, and naturally, they became suspicious. It was a case of cause and effect. Others, however, sought that authority—that is, to take their father’s place as soon as possible. Life reveals the wrongness of wrong deeds, for in that process, human characters change and acquire new traits. 

Kronos (Saturn). Photo by Veer Shah on Unsplash

Kronos ultimately represented time, which would never end... But as social life changed, so did beliefs, which is why during the era represented by the second-generation sky god Kronos, the greatest fear of the kings—the earthly representatives of the gods—was being overthrown by their own children. So, just as a king began to see his own child as an enemy, a god also began to see his own child as an enemy. Since there are many destructive examples of such replacements in political history, this narrative becomes easier to understand. 

Humanotions: Do you think the support of the gods functions like a kind of “invisible power”? Can we compare this today to things like money, influence, protection, or social support? 

Sema Sandalcı: In response to your question, “Can we compare this today to things like money, influence, protection, or social support?” I would say, if you deserve it, why not? 

Ancient images of gods and goddesses are identified with the concrete elements of nature, but ultimately, portraying them as human is a human fantasy. While their dignity was initially preserved in accordance with their function, by the time we reach the Greco-Roman era, these gods also had their weaknesses. Indeed, in Rome, there were warnings not to urinate on the bases of the statues of the gods.

It is the Sky that governs the entire earth. Therefore, it is the greatest power. It means that the sky god supported the person or people who accomplished something that everyone else feared and couldn't, because the greatest power resides in Him. Perhaps this support stemmed from the honor of their lineage, or directly from the god's love and appreciation for them. Similarly, it is certain that the sea god Poseidon helped the person who managed to reach land when everyone else was drowning in a shipwreck.

Earth, water, sun, moon, fire, and stars were enduring forces vital to life. Beliefs in these emerged over the past 6,000 years and reached their peak in the Greco-Roman world. However, religion manifests itself through worship. Since people sometimes faced disasters even after performing all the rituals they deemed correct, they inevitably made changes to their religion as well. Alongside concrete forces, they also understood abstract, enduring forces—such as love, passion, hatred, and resentment. Building on this, they concluded that there were also invisible forces not identified with anything in nature—forces that could be good or evil, known in Rome as “Genius/Genius, Cenius” and referred to in Turkish as “Cin.” 

The success of a past generation may manifest itself more clearly in the new generation, or the unpunished sin of the past may bring an unforeseen disaster upon today’s family.

That is why a person has a duty and an obligation toward their lineage, their family, the place where they live, their country, and the world. There is nothing more satisfying than eating, drinking, and smiling with a clear conscience, knowing that one has earned what one consumes. For example, when faced with an unscrupulous offer, one would immediately reject it and be able to walk away with a clear conscience, keeping one’s family and children in mind because of this sense of duty.

Indeed, we are raised with these values—voices from the past, from within us, and from our Turkish culture. 

Let us not forget: the first oaths on Earth began with Mesopotamian cultures; we were oriented toward the earth and nature because of the blessings they provided. Those who took these first oaths repeatedly affirmed that this obligation would bind future generations as well. That is why those living on this land (in Türkiye) today bear this responsibility. In European countries, there has been no such process, and therefore no such responsibility; the same applies to America... 

Because this is a matter of belief, of religion, people swear on what they consider sacred. Think about it, which religion did Europe and America contribute to the birth of? They are actually using what already exists to suit their needs. They boast about being Christian, but they had no part in the origins of this religion, whereas Anatolia played a significant role. If it weren't for Anatolian Christianity, Europe wouldn't even be Christian.

Indeed, the values of this region have even pioneered the proper shaping of the Arabs’ Islam; after all, Arab life was incompatible with both Anatolian life and the Turkic-Mongol understanding of life in Asia. 

Let’s discuss today’s successes: some are truly successful, while others are propelled forward by other powers, as if they had a story of their own... Because politics demands it. 

It is possible to deceive people, because people love to be deceived, but you cannot deceive nature—that is, the true ruler of life... One must look at what people have accumulated over the years.

Look at Anatolia’s past. As we’ve emphasized, there are the earliest traces of writing, the first settlements, the first agriculture, the first weaving, the first religious and political formations, the first works in astronomy and geometry, the first architecture, the first irrigation canals, the first olive oil production, a place in the first urbanization, a place in the first technology, and a place in the first craftsmanship... For five thousand years, this legacy has been passed down from one culture to another. 

Unless these events from ancient history are included in the curriculum and taught in today’s middle and high schools, we will not raise people who are loyal to their homeland. They told Fatih Sultan Mehmet, “You conquered Istanbul with our prayers,” and he replied, “I conquered the world. They told Atatürk, “You defeated our enemies with our prayers,” and he replied, “I defeated them with strategy.” 

Indeed, we are raised with these values. Voices from the past, from within us, and from our Turkish culture. 

Mythological narratives were like that too. They knew how to emphasize exactly what had happened. 

Humanotions: What strategic advantages did Julius Caesar achieve by linking his legitimacy to the myth of Aeneas?

It is claimed that the name “Iulius”—the surname of Caesar, who lived in Rome in the 1st century BCE and was assassinated in 44 BCE—derives from the name of Aeneas, a Trojan nobleman born to Agis, a shepherd from Mount Ida (Kaz Mountains), a mortal yet strikingly handsome shepherd named Agkhises. After Troy was burned and destroyed, his divine mother told him to take his family and leave, but Aeneas chose to stay, vowing to fight for the city and its people and, if necessary, die for them. When his mother tells him that his divine duty is to establish a second Troy in the ancestral lands, he accepts this, and one night, taking his elderly father, his wife, and his young son with him, he departs the ruined city by ship with his men. His wife is unable to board the ship due to the chaos at the start of the journey, and the family sets out without her. The ancestral homeland is Crete. However, the epic establishes a connection with Italy. 

The Aeneid was written by the Roman poet Virgil in the 1st century BCE. The central theme was the establishment of a second Troy in the ancestral lands to replace the city of Troy, which had been destroyed around 1250 BCE. 

Aeneas arrived in Italy and carved out a place for himself through warfare. His son’s name was Ascanius, but he was given the title “Iulus” in recognition of a particular achievement.

Thanks to his distant descendants, the twins Romulus and Remus, Rome was founded in 753 BCE; it was considered the second Troy, and Aeneas was regarded as the city’s spiritual ancestor.

Thus, the “Iulii” family, to which Caesar and his adopted nephew Augustus belonged, traced its lineage back to this “Iulus.” 

Throughout the ancient world, those who performed deeds beneficial to their lineage, ancestors, and state were already held in high esteem. Caesar was not cursed, but in that chaotic period, he concentrated the powers of the Republic within himself, likely to protect the state. However, this usurpation of authority was deemed dangerous by those who knew the dark sides of monarchy. It also posed a threat to those who benefited from the Senate’s privileges. 

Julius Caesar. Photo by Daniel Damasio on Unsplash

Caesar was a soldier, a commander and a statesman; the convergence of these three significant roles in a single individual was no mean feat for that era. Yet he owed his positions to his achievements; amongst his many successes, he was responsible for the establishment of the Roman calendar.

Consequently, his achievements came to be associated with his lineage. This can be seen not as an advantage, but as a consequence of being of noble birth. Ultimately, this interpretation is based on ancient Roman authors, and mythology has its place in Roman history.

For whilst the historian endeavours to recount the event by presenting the historical truth, the poet, in conveying the event, imbues it with religious elements, lineage, and the support of the gods, weaving in dialogues to render it lyrical.

By the way, we would like to remind you: The Second Rome is also İstanbul. Let us not forget that history is a cycle, moving in parallel with the turning of the world. 

Because these themes required a deeper exploration, we have divided the interview into two parts. The second part will be published next month.

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