Unpacking Colonial Legacies: Female Genital Mutilation

On the morning of February 6th, 2025, I woke up to several posts on social media highlighting the significance of the International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). This day, observed globally, is an international reminder of the ongoing activism that focuses on raising awareness about the millions of women and girls who continue to experience it. Moreover, it is an opportunity to reflect on the different discourses surrounding FGM and the colonial legacies that keep shaping contemporary perceptions of gender, culture, and human rights. 

While the discussions among the media, lawmakers, politicians, activists, and others are clear in their focus on strengthening prevention and protection strategies to create a 'safer and healthier' future for all, the complexity of practices like FGM surely demands a more nuanced approach that should focus on addressing not only the legal frameworks but also the cultural, social and historical factors that are intrinsic to these practices as well as the profound impact it has on the lives of those affected.

In this context, the main questions I often hear from friends and colleagues when approaching the topic are similar to: "What is FGM?, How is this happening in the so-called 'civilized Western societies'?, Isn’t FGM a practice rooted in barbaric and less-developed communities? How does it even happen in the first place? Isn't it illegal?". And perhaps the most common question I hear: "Why are you so interested?".

A Personal Journey: From Curiosity to Deep Engagement

If you, dear reader, are also wondering the same, here’s a bit of context: I was born and raised in Curitiba, Brazil, a country where FGM is not a commonly known nor executed practice.. However, during the readings for my undergraduate thesis, I came across a book called "The Hidden Face of Eve", written by Nawal El Saadawi, an Egyptian feminist, writer, and activist. By exploring the social, cultural, and psychological impacts of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) El Saadawi delves deeply into her personal experience as well as the stories of other women who have undergone FGM, narrating different realities and aspects of women's lives- often "hidden” or silenced by their own societies. 

Reading this book was a turning point for me.

It sparked a deep interest in understanding this practice and six years later I remain deeply committed to rethinking its complexities as I strive to understand what it means to be a researcher in this field, and how to engage responsibly all while being mindful of my own privilege and the ethical considerations involved in studying such a deeply personal and cultural issue.

Defining FGM: Beyond the Simplified Narratives

Through this research, I sought to come up with responses to the most common questions I am frequently asked. When asked to describe "What is FGM?", I believe that the response goes beyond mere categorization coming from the World Health Organization which defines FGM as: “All procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs, for non-medical reasons.”(2).

The international anti-FGM discourse surely oversimplifies the practices and context, often reducing them to infibulation (Type III) which leads to a homogenization that erases the geographical, cultural, and political nuances of it thereby constructing a binary of "us" versus "them". 

These tensions highlight the contradictions between global anti-FGM narratives and the lived realities of those who experience the practice. Such critiques underscore the need for a more nuanced approach that recognizes the complexities and variations of FGM moving beyond one-size-fits-all solutions to consider the unique circumstances of each community and the voices of those directly impacted by the practice.

While doing extensive research for my thesis, "Rethinking Female Genital Cutting Through a Postcolonial Lens(3)” I  had the opportunity to work as a consultant for the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) in Egypt. My work there focused specifically on gender-based violence and female genital mutilation. Having full hands-on experience has not only deepened my opposition to FGC but also reinforced my understanding of the importance of adopting a sensitive and culturally informed approach when engaging with women who have experienced it. Working closely with refugees from various contexts and listening to the accounts of trauma shared by these women has been a pivotal part of this learning process, strengthening my commitment to both my research and the ethical considerations involved in such sensitive issues.

Photo by Bere Del Valle on Unsplash

Listening to the Women: Real Voices, Real Stories

Throughout my research and work on the ground, I had the chance to interview and speak to several  women and girls—each with a story that offered a window into how Female Genital Mutilation is understood, rationalized, and remembered. Some of these stories challenged my assumptions in ways I could never have anticipated (Note: Names have been changed to protect individuals' privacy). 

I recall a Somali mother, Fatima* who had migrated to Egypt from Somalia. She explained that FGM was performed on her daughters not in defiance of law or out of ignorance—but out of deep fear.

“There are too many dangers for girls here,” she told me. “At home, we used to say: ‘A closed flower is safe from the sun.’”

Her voice shook with the weight of inherited trauma, but she wasn’t trying to defend the act—only to explain it as a way of coping in a world where female bodies were seen as vulnerable, and purity was tied to survival and marriageability.

Another encounter that has stayed with me was with a Sudanese refugee in Cairo named Amira*. She experienced FGM when she was 8 years old. 

I asked her how she viewed the practice now. “I cried,” she said, “because I was afraid. But my mother cried too. She didn’t want it for me, but she said she had no choice. If she didn’t do it, we would be ostracized by the community.”

Despite the pain, Amira said the act wasn’t discussed much in her community afterward, not as trauma, but simply as something that “had to be done.”

Not all the women I spoke to opposed FGM, though. One Eritrean woman, Miriam*, described the practice as “a celebration” when she experienced it.

“We wore beautiful dresses, we sang, we danced. It made me feel like a woman,” she explained. But years later, after moving to a more urban part of Cairo and attending school, her views began to shift. “I didn’t know it could cause problems in childbirth. No one told us that.”

These stories helped me understand that FGM is not only a physical act—it’s an emotional and cultural experience woven into the social fabric of certain communities. While many women, particularly after migration and exposure to different norms, come to reject the practice, others continue to see it as a source of identity or even pride. What these conversations taught me most is that judgment alone cannot dismantle FGM—it requires trust, dialogue, and deep community engagement.

The Role of Migration in FGM Practices

When it comes to the refugee crisis - a consequence of global instabilities - and the rise in Islamophobia, especially since 9/11, Female Genital Mutilation has re-emerged as a symbol of "cultural savagery" and a violation of women's rights. With the rise of right-wing populism and public concern over extremism from Islamic states, FGM has become central to debates on migration, forced displacement, multiculturalism, and social cohesion. From my understanding, these debates have created two "moral panics": one over child protection and the other portraying refugees and their cultures as a threat to national identity and values.

In the UK, right-wing politicians like Boris Johnson and Nigel Farage have used FGM to argue that multiculturalism and integration policies have failed(4). Despite claims to end FGM, funding for prevention and social work on the issue has been significantly reduced in recent years. 

Now, regarding the question "How is this happening in Europe, the Americas, and other civilized countries?” my answer might seem simple at first glance: movement. In a world of constant transformation, movement takes many forms -- migration, forced displacement, or even significant relocations in search of better opportunities. Alongside movement, communities often carry social norms and behaviors deeply embedded in their beliefs and traditions, as is the case with FGM.

FGM and Migration: Three Key Scenarios

The relationship between FGM and migration is intricate. My research identifies three main "FGM-Migration" scenarios: a) migration from regions with high FGM prevalence to other areas with similar levels; b) migration of groups who do not practice FGM to areas where it is prevalent; and c) movement of FGM-practicing communities to regions where FGM is less common. By examining existing research, I found that these scenarios reveal the complex connections between FGM and migration patterns. They underscore the importance of factors like the migrant experience, integration into new communities, and how FGM serves as a marker of identity, which all warrant deeper exploration.

Photo by Ady on Unsplash

I want to specifically focus on the migration of FGM-practicing groups to destinations with low FGM prevalence. Communities who come from FGM-practicing countries or regions face the challenge of reconciling two contradictory pressures after settling in a non-FGM-practicing country.

In their countries of destination, FGM is prohibited and regarded as a violation of human rights, while in their countries of origin, the practice is widespread and viewed as a social norm. This disparity can lead to confusion at best, and, at worst, identity crises and psychological issues.

Despite this, the impact of acculturation and the Western cultural context on migrants’ attitudes toward FGM has received limited attention from researchers. The few studies conducted have generally focused on Western Europe (Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the UK) and among migrants from FGM-practicing countries in the Horn of Africa, particularly Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia. 

Many Western countries indeed have laws that criminalize FGM, developed in response to migration from countries where FGM is practiced. France was the first to outlaw it in 1979, followed by Sweden (1982) and the UK (1985), with other countries like the USA and Canada passing similar legislation in the 1990s. Some countries, such as the UK, have specific laws prohibiting FGM, while others address it within broader child abuse legislation (e.g., France). Most laws include an extra-territoriality clause to protect girls from FGM even if taken abroad for the procedure. The International Organization for Migration sustains that fighting FGM in Western countries is challenging, as awareness campaigns can be perceived as judgmental or morally offensive by migrant communities, potentially leading to negative reactions. This tension between addressing harmful cultural practices like FGM and respecting cultural identity highlights a critical intersection between migration, human rights, and decolonial discourse.

Balancing Human Rights and Cultural Sensitivity

The intersection of migration and the practice of FGM presents a complex challenge for both migrants and the countries that receive them. Communities migrating from FGM-practicing regions to countries with low FGM prevalence often face a difficult reconciliation between the cultural norms of their countries of origin and the legal frameworks of their new homes.

While some Western countries have implemented laws to criminalize FGM, the impact of acculturation and the cultural context of the West on migrants' views of the practice remains under-explored.

Moreover, attempts to address FGM within migrant communities can inadvertently be perceived as culturally insensitive, raising the need for more careful and respectful approaches to these sensitive issues. Therefore, as the global discourse on FGM continues to evolve, it is crucial to balance the fight against harmful practices with an understanding of the cultural complexities of migration and the ethical considerations involved in respecting diverse identities. This balance is key to ensuring that efforts to combat FGM are both effective and respectful of cultural differences, promoting true human rights without reinforcing colonial legacies or cultural marginalization.

References

1- El Saadawi, Nawal. (2007). The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World. Zed Books.

2- World Health Organization. (2021). Female genital mutilation. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation

3- Carvalho, E. (2024). Rethinking female genital cutting through postcolonial lens [Master's thesis, The American University in Cairo]. AUC Knowledge Fountain. https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds/2261

4- Cameron, D. (2015, July). Extremism: PM Speech. UK Government. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/extremism-pm-speech 

5- International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2009). Female Genital Mutilation and Migration. IOM.

6- United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). (2010). Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern. UNFPA.

7- World Health Organization (WHO). (2008). Female Genital Mutilation and Obstetric Outcome: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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